After five decades of search, the Higgs Boson was among the last of the elementary particles to be discovered. The Higgs Boson has come a long way right from its theoretical origins to its discovery in 2012.

The discovery of Higgs Boson

The European research organization, Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire (CERN), operates the world’s largest particle physics laboratory. It was instrumental in building Large Hadron Collider or LHC in 2008. One of the major motivations behind building it was to discover Higgs Boson.

When the LHC began its operations, scientists knew that Higgs had a mass greater than 114 billion eV. Physicists measure the mass of particles in electron volts (eV). For example, the mass of a proton is 938 million eV. If Higgs Boson had a smaller mass, it could’ve been discovered by the particle accelerators that previous generations used.

The LHC was highly efficient and was coming up with an increasing number of measurements. This led to the Higgs Boson discovery with a mass of around 125 billion eV. On the 4th of July 2012, a formal announcement was made about the discovery. This received plenty of media attention as it was first proposed almost fifty years back.

The physicists behind Higgs Boson

Robert Brout was among the three scientists behind the prediction of Higgs Boson. He died just over a year before the discovery. In 2013, the Nobel Prize for physics was awarded to the other two, Peter Higgs and Francois Englert. They had made the theoretical discovery of a mechanism, which helped in understanding the subatomic particles’ origin of mass.

Its confirmation came through the discovery of the predicted fundamental particle. More than 30 million particle decays that took place in the LHC were analyzed before the discovery was made.

Higgs Field Theory

The world-renowned equation of Albert Einstein is E = mc², where m is mass and E is energy. Mass is one of matter’s most basic properties. It’s a quantity that determines the amount of resistance an object offers with the application of a force to it. The ‘c’ in the equation is just a constant, which is the speed of light. So, the equation says that energy and mass are same except for a change of the units of measurement.

The human body has this binding energy, which holds the fundamental particles together inside the atoms. This is true in the case of any object in the real world. How these objects get their mass is the question here. The theoretical physicists came up with a possible answer in the 1960s. Peter Higgs from the University of Edinburgh was one of them.

The mechanism that these physicists proposed involves the ‘Higgs field’. This is an invisible field, but it’s all-pervading. Elementary particles get their mass through their interactions with the Higgs field. As this field don’t affect all the different particles in the same way, they have different masses.

Explanation of the Higgs Boson

Peter Higgs had submitted his original paper about the Higgs field on the 31st of August, 1964. It didn’t have a name during the time of its submission to the Physical Review Letters. Another paper was published on the same day by the Belgian physicists Robert Brout and Francois Englert. It gave the description of essentially the same theory.

When this came to Higgs’s attention, he made the necessary modifications in his paper for including another prediction. It was about the association of a new elementary particle with the Higgs field. It was a part of a class of particles, the ‘bosons’. This elementary particle would have a mass that’s extremely high. Later the world would come to know it as ‘The Higgs Boson’.

The Higgs field theory gave an excellent explanation for the mass of elementary particles. The question was about its correctness and the obvious way of verification was observing a Higgs boson. At the time, it wasn’t easy. There were stability issues with the Higgs boson and there was a need for something powerful to create it.

Within a tiny fraction of a second, it would disintegrate into other particles. Physicist Brian Greene had explained this while writing for Smithsonian Magazine. By the subatomic standards, its huge mass meant that only super high-energy collisions could create it. This later became a possibility with CERN’s Large Hadron Collider.

The God Particle

Of course, the Higgs boson doesn’t have a catchy and evocative term in the world of high-energy physics. In the world outside high-energy physics, many physicists refer to it as the ‘God particle’. This was the title that authors Dick Teresi and Leon Lederman gave for their 1993 book on the subject. According to these authors, they chose the title because the publisher didn’t like its earlier title ‘Goddamn Particle’.

In fact, many scientists are not in favor of the ‘God particle’ moniker. Nevertheless, the fact remains that the Higgs boson is of enormous significance. It was the final piece of the jigsaw of the Standard Model. Besides, it has the potential to help scientists in unlocking further mysteries.

Higgs boson in recent times

The Higgs boson has many surprises in store for scientists across the world. One can learn more about its ways of working with the help of careful observations. The different ways it decays into other particles is worth observing. The Higgs boson also decays into a completely different particle class known as ‘muons’.

Generally, the Higgs boson decays into quarks but muons also get their mass through the Higgs mechanism. The God particle might have even more surprises for everyone in the days to come. Many are of the opinion that there might be an entire family of Higgs bosons. Some of them may be much more greater than the one that was discovered.

If Higgs boson had a mass significantly greater, it would’ve signaled trouble for the universe. This suggestion had come from a recent research. It explained that in such a situation, the universe might’ve ended in a catastrophic collapse. Other parts of the multiverse might’ve met such a fate, but our universe still goes on.

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They feature themes inspired by mathematics, chemistry, biology, and other branches of science. Upon playing these games, you might also win an exciting jackpot. It would surely make you feel no less than a Nobel Prize winner! So, here are the best online slot games with a science theme:

1. Madder Scientist

Betsoft had a rather unexpected success with their online slot called Mad Scientist. This prompted the gaming software provider to create a sequel to it. As a result, you now have Madder Scientist, which is based on the basic elements from its predecessor. If you’ve played Mad Scientist, you’ll have no difficulty in figuring out everything about Madder Scientist.

The theme of this online slot talks about Dr. Prescott, who is trying to develop a new technology. For this purpose, he conducts tests and experiments in his secret underground lab. You’ll find the graphics of this game truly fascinating as it has some amazing visual details. The game has 30 paylines and 5 reels. Upon using all the paylines, you can increase the chances of winning to a great extent.

The normal symbols you’ll come across in this game are the tubes and a worried rabbit. There are some special symbols as well. To begin with, there are three carrot symbols that would take you to a second-screen bonus game. You’ll be able to turn a reel in this game into a wild reel with the Switch symbol. Also seen on the reels is a mini-game. It can be played when you have three chemical breakers on the screen.

2. Electron

If you’re a fan of science-fiction movies that showcase high-tech gadgets, you’ll love this online slot. It comes from the casino game provider, Saucify. This online slot game has 40 paylines and 5 reels that give you a thrilling online gaming experience.

This release seems to have been inspired by the movie, Tron. It tells the tale of a human crew trapped in a virtual world. They’re trying to get back home desperately. As you proceed further on this futuristic trip, the game’s graphics and visual details would delight you.

The reels of this game resemble the motherboard of a computer. A CPU symbol represents the Wilds of this game. It can replace the regular symbols that you’ll come across on the reels. You can activate the free spins mode when you land three or more Scattered Turbo symbols.

3. Miles Bellhouse and Curious Machine

You can simply call this online slot game Curious Machine. It’s one of the best 3D online slots from Betsoft and can suit beginners as well as experienced players. The game has a theme featuring a funny inventor and his curious time machine. It has attractive graphics with some fantastic animations and good music. You’ll have 30 paylines and 5 reels in Miles Bellhouse and Curious Machine.

Some of the common symbols you’ll come across in the game are a clock, the inventor, and the machine. When you get at least three symbols of a Dinosaur, the Blast from the Past bonus is activated. This bonus will give you three free spins and opportunities for multipliers.

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In order to record the fascinating things happening in nature and describe it later, physicists needed to be alert. All the great physicists have the alertness and passion to discover new phenomena. Such individuals are often more capable than others in understanding the world in terms of its make-up. The more exceptional among them become visionaries and agents of social change on the planet.

Let’s take Nikola Tesla as an example here. His contributions in the field of physics was extremely beneficial to humans and their social progress. The principles detailed in his scientific works are now used in many of the modern power systems.

How physicists change the world

The world that we live in today is extremely complex. There are several constraints in it to deal with. A physicist often has to make a choice whether to work within such constraints or to surpass them. The closed systems have limited or no interactions with many of the other systems. Applied physicists focus more on the optimization of outcomes but they need the theoretical framework for the purpose of analysis.

This has always come from the fundamental laws that physics offer. Having the knowledge of these laws help physicists in many ways. One of them is exercising control while creating new devices and materials that affect human life directly. An understanding of the fundamental laws of physics also helps them in pushing the boundaries.

One such physicist who pushed the boundaries was Sergey Korolev. When many were saying that sky is the limit, he showed that space flight was possible. He served as an inspiration for generations of scientists who wanted to travel to distant planets.

The future of physics

At some point, you might’ve wondered what’s the future of physics. Well, many physicists believe that multi-disciplinary research is the best way to move forward. Over the years, physics has become a multi-disciplinary science itself. You’ve got many examples that are testimony to this fact. Some of them are biophysics, mathematical physics, and chemical physics.

So, physicists can approach a variety of problems from multiple directions today. Even you can do wonders with a fundamental knowledge of physics, a few gadgets, and the internet. Physicists excel at thinking outside the box. Such an approach is helpful especially when faced with the real-world problems.

This is how Paul Dirac came up with predictions about the existence of antielectrons in 1928. Later, the antielectrons were discovered as particles and were called positrons. He didn’t discard the solutions that deviated from the conventional approach towards understanding matter.

Dirac was not like many others solving the Schrodinger equation who ignore the solutions hinting at deviations from conventions. Today, you can find Dirac’s portrait in Skoltech’s Nuclear Science and Technology cluster. It reminds scores of people about the value of thinking outside the box.

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In the past, there have been many such individuals who were instrumental in changing our perspective about the universe. Now, let’s take a look at some of the most influential physicists in history.

1. Albert Einstein

He was the one who completely changed everyone’s understanding of light, space, time, and gravity. According to Einstein, everyone measures the speed of light in a vacuum as 300 million meters per second. This is regardless of their own speed relative to light. After he established this, it became clear that time passes at a slower pace for people traveling at extremely high speeds.

Those moving slowly would find that time moves at a faster pace for them. Einstein was behind the discovery of his iconic equation E = mc². The equation indicated that energy and matter can be converted into each other. He also rewrote the law of gravitation that Newton had come up with.

2. Galileo

Many remember him as one of the first individuals to study the sky using a telescope. He also went on to discover moons that were orbiting another planet. This led him to discover the four largest moons of Jupiter. Another discovery was that the planet Venus had phases similar to the Earth’s moon. Instead of mathematical evidence, he had a practical proof that sun was at our solar system’s center.

He was also behind the Law of Pendulum’s discovery. Galileo saw that gravity ensures equal acceleration of all things regardless of their mass. He also saw that gravity accelerates objects proportionally to the square of the time they took for their fall.

3. Isaac Newton

Newton gave an excellent explanation of gravity and motion using mathematics in his book, Principia. This famous book is one of the most important books on science every written. He was also behind the invention of calculus. It still helps people in understanding the behavior of objects irrespective of their size.

During the early years of Newton’s works, no one could understand his new physics. He was behind the discovery of the law of universal gravitation. Newton came up with the explanation that the moon orbits the earth. He also said that it was for the same reason that an apple fell from its tree.

4. Michael Faraday

Faraday’s laws of electrolysis is vital to electrochemistry. He played a major role in the founding of this discipline. Michael Faraday is believed to be the greatest experimental physicist ever. He is credited for producing electric current in a wire by varying a magnetic field. In the process, he discovered electromagnetic induction. This is the means that generate electricity in today’s power plants.

He was also behind the discovery of electromagnetic rotation. One of his greatest inventions is the Faraday Cage. It’s extremely effective in preventing external interference from affecting the sensitive electronic and electric equipment.

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So, it can be a monster made up of two things that many students hate. They are science and numbers. Here, we’re surely going to talk about physics, but not to scare you. We’ve brought some astonishing facts about the subject that you’ll certainly enjoy reading about:

1. Special relativity makes space travelers younger

Velocity and gravity affects the speed of time according to the theory of special relativity. So, the astronauts who are outside our planet at the moment are experiencing the time slowly. Probably that’s the reason why astronauts look a bit younger.

2. The meaning of physics

The word ‘physics’ has its origins in a Greek word. The meaning of that Greek word is ‘knowledge of nature’. This perfectly suits this subject since it’s about observations and explanations of the natural phenomena. No wonder it’s among the oldest fields in science, which dates back to the ancient times.

3. Light traveling faster is not completely true

You might’ve heard this countless times when you were a student that ‘light travels faster’. Little did you know at the time that it’s not completely true. The speed of light doesn’t pass through a vacuum always. The vacuum is the only place where they have a speed that’s constant. When passing through water, protons travel at a speed that’s 3 quarters of it.

4. You can easily float in the Dead Sea’s waters

Even nature has its own way of telling you that physics is not that boring. It can explain some of nature’s marvels. One of them is the Dead Sea, in which, a person can easily float without the fear of drowning. The reason for this is its density owing to the presence of salt. So, if you aren’t a swimmer and you happen to visit the Dead Sea, try taking a dip in its waters.

5. GPS works on Einstein’s equation

Remember Albert Einstein’s famous equation E=mc²? Well, the GPS on your smartphone is based on this equation. Today’s systems of satellite navigation rely on the geostationary satellites to give us the exact location and related data. This is done with the use of radio waves. So, the theory of relativity is in action while helping the GPS function.

6. Black holes aren’t really black

The world-renowned physicist, Stephen Hawking, was the one who proposed that black holes exist in the universe. He had also discovered a radiation which was later called ‘Hawking radiation’. It can make a black hole glow and give off light across the entire spectrum.

7. Quantum Foam

The empty space you see in the universe is not really empty. There are particles that pop into existence and out of it. They’re known as virtual particles and exist only for a fraction of a second. While they exist, they break some of the fundamental laws of physics. This phenomenon is called ‘Quantum Foam’. They’re more like bubbles that you see on the top of a soft drink.

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So, you can see that it’s fundamental to the expression of laws in physics. A symmetrical object can be quite easy to describe, as it’ll have lesser features. In other words, it’ll have lesser information. We just need to describe the theme and the many ways, in which, the repetition happens.

For example, one house in a row of homes that are identical. There are certain things that remain same at all times and at all places. Let’s say there’s a transition to a different state on the other side of a coin. In this case, you’ll have more features to describe and it’ll have more information.

Water appears the same in all directions. However, when it becomes a snowflake, there’s a change in its state. Due to this, it becomes more complex. A snowflake crystal might look the same in only a certain number of directions. This would be the best example of ‘symmetry breaking’.

Importance of symmetry breaking in physics

Symmetry breaking is a cornerstone concept in the world of physics, especially particle physics. It is this concept that gave birth to the theory of supersymmetry. There’s a belief among many physicists that the forces of nature were identical just after the big bang. They also believe that all the elementary particles at the time were the same.

According to them, this symmetry was broken within an instant. Following this, the color force between quarks parted from the electroweak force. Later, the fragmentation of the electroweak force into electromagnetism and weak force took place. Further broken symmetries would be too confusing.

The spin of particles

The connection between the spin of elementary particles that took place and their statistics is extremely important. It’s a bridge between the macrocosm and the microcosm. It would seem that nature divides the quantum world into classes of particles. The two classes of particles are the fermions and bosons. Matter particles including all quarks and leptons are the fermions.

Bosons are the particles that carry the four forces. Fermions have fractional spins, while bosons have a whole spin. A statistical system accompanies these two divisions, which helps in defining their states of energy. This is of great importance to physicists, as it helps them relate the particle’s spin to its location. It also helps them in understanding its interactions with the other particles.

The behavior of fermions

The way fermions behave is quite strange in the quantum spin. Due to this feature, they’re also called ‘spin 1/2 particles’. Upon turning 360 degrees in space, the earth would return to where it had begun. On the other hand, if a spin 1/2 particle rotates 360 degrees, it will arrive at a quantum state. This will have a measurable difference from the state in which it had started.

So, in order to get back to where it had begun, it’ll have to make another 360-degree rotation. This would make a double rotation, that is, 720 degrees. This notion that a particle has to rotate another 360 degrees has an important role in the theory of supersymmetry.

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The standard model of particle physics was only available after the 1970s. Since then, there has been no progress in the foundations of physics. Of course, confirmation on certain aspects of these theories came later on through experimentation.

The cost factor

With the progress of physics, it has become harder than ever before to probe using experiments. The technological advancements in recent times have not been able to keep the expenses and size manageable. As a result, you’ll see collaborations of thousands in physics today who operate machines costing billions.

The physicists have been conducting fewer experiments lately. This has made made the chances of discovery increasingly unlikely. The lack of discoveries also lead to a lack of technology, which is necessary to keep the experiments viable economically. Experiments soon become much more costly and result in the lack of progress. One such example is the particle collider, which cost $40 billion.

No change in the methods of physicists

Physics has changed over the years but the physicists are still using the same methods. The physicists must carefully choose which hypothesis needs to be tested. This is something that’s not being done today. Education in physics that they receive today don’t give them the ability to identify the promising hypotheses.

This requires self-reflection and it comes from the knowledge of science’s sociology and philosophy. Sadly, most of the physicists today make fun of these subjects. They believe they’re some sort of intelligent species and don’t need to think about what they’re doing. As a consequence, no evidence has been found yet beyond what everyone knows.

Naivety of physicists

It seems theoretical physicists haven’t learned the lessons over the years. They still ignore the sociology and philosophy part of science. When someone with great experience tries to explain the need for smarter ways, they just dismiss the suggestions. They put forward some entirely baseless speculations instead of examining the way hypotheses are proposed.

What they think is healthy speculation is just fictional mathematics. It’s absolutely clear that such speculations have not worked for many years. They don’t work even today. This naivety has led to a failure of the highly effective scientific methods.

History might have some lessons

Upon looking at the history of physics, the most reliable path to breakthroughs will be absolutely clear. Resolving the inconsistencies has always been the key to achieving breakthroughs in physics. So, this is what physicists of today need to focus on. They need to try new and better methods, which will be more appropriate for the present age.

The current scientific system doesn’t encourage learning. Probably this is why many believe that physicists can happily make a career writing papers instead. If experiments become increasingly expensive in the coming years, you’ll observe this problem in other disciplines. If this happens, it will affect the foundations of physics the most before anything else.

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The law states that the force of gravity remains the same in terms of strength from moment to moment. An explanation of this is possible with Noether’s theorem. According to the theorem, there’s a law of conservation attached to a symmetry of nature wherever it exists. This theorem has been named after Emmy Noether. She was among the greatest mathematicians from the 20th century.

Early years

Amalie Emmy Noether was born in 1882 in Bavaria, which is now a federal state in Germany. She earned a doctorate in mathematics during the early 20th century from the University of Erlangen. During those days, it had the reputation of a socially progressive institution. She taught at Earlangen while staying there for several years. At the time, women were technically not allowed to teach at German universities.

David Hilbert, who was one of the prominent mathematicians of the time, invited her to the University of Gottingen. She remained there between 1916 and 1933. Following the First World War, there was a liberalization of laws in Germany. She was able to get a teaching position, but was still receiving lesser salary for her work.

Immigration to the United States

In 1933, Adolf Hitler became the German chancellor. The Nazi activity around Germany increased significantly after this event. Among the Hitler administration’s first actions were the removal of Jews from their jobs. Only those who had shown loyalty to Germany by serving in the First World War were spared. As a result, Noether lost her right to teach at the University of Gottingen.

She calmly accepted her expulsion to provide support for others during those troubled times. The representatives of Bryn Mawr got in touch with Noether and this led to the approval of her grant later on. During late 1933, she took a position at Bryn Mawr. A year later, she accepted the position of a lecturer in Princeton at the Institute for Advanced Study.

Death

Noether had to be on bed rest after the doctors told her about a tumor in her pelvis. To avoid prolonging surgery, two smaller tumors in her uterus were not removed. She showed signs of recovery, but fell unconscious on the 14th of April. She died after her temperature soared to 109 degrees Fahrenheit. All of these events happened in the April of 1935. She was 53 years of age at the time of her death.

Legacy

The physicists hold Emmy Noether in high regard for her theorem, which she developed in 1918. Mathematicians are now familiar with Noether equations, Noether modules, and many other works. During her career, she had developed much of the abstract algebra of modern times.

She also developed the syntax and grammar of mathematics, which was of great help for scientists. Her way of treating symmetries has influenced the mathematical aspects of superstring theory and quantum mechanics. Today, almost every physicist uses Noether’s theorem while working with conservation laws and symmetry.

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She came up with many theories, but it’s the Noether’s theorem that became a key to her fame. If you wish to find out more about this great mathematician, here are some of the books we recommend:

1. Proving It Her Way: Emmy Noether, a Life in Mathematics

This book focuses on the important figures in Emmy Noether’s life. It also shows how she promoted many other talented individuals selflessly, thus building their careers. Proving It Her Way aims to convey this remarkable mathematician’s personality and her impact on modern mathematics. You’ll be surprised to know that this was despite the fact that she never had a regular professorship.

This book is for a general audience and is more of a study. It tries to uncover the human dimensions of the key relationships that Noether had with mathematicians of the younger generation. It also presents a fresh perspective on Noether’s extraordinary career.

2. Emmy Noether: The Most Important Mathematician You’ve Never Heard Of

This is a picture book on Emmy Noether and presents an engaging account of this renowned female mathematician. It tells the reader that she had defied all social expectations. She was neither quiet nor good at doing the household chores. Instead, she was exceptionally brilliant at math. She first studied math at a university and then went on to teach it to others.

Emmy Noether also had solutions to the most pressing problems in physics and mathematics at the time. You feel sad upon learning that she didn’t get much credit for this during her lifetime. Today, the discoveries that she came up with influence many across the world.

3. Emmy Noether: The Mother of Modern Algebra

Teenage girls would find this book quite fascinating. The book will certainly appeal to them, as it tells the tale of a young woman who finds fame and happiness. Interestingly, she doesn’t find them in a Prince Charming but in her mathematical theories. This book is a wonderful biography of Emmy Noether.

It tells her story in an engaging way with a certain level of literary creativity. You’ll be able to enjoy the supposed dialogue that it generates. In this book, Emmy Noether is presented as a woman of substance. She was someone who never really came under the influence of the trappings of pomp and style.

4. Emmy Noether’s Wonderful Theorem

Upon reading this book, you’ll get a more updated expanation of the first theorem of Emmy Noether. The discussion has been expanded in this book into a presentation, which is more detailed. It also explains her second theorem’s proof, motivation, and application. This includes Emmy Noether’s concerns about general relativity. The new edition has come with several other refinements.

Among them is an extended biography of Noether’s life and work. The refinements also include parallels that have been drawn between her original paper and the present approach. You’ll also find a summary of the logic behind her popular theorem, which is the Noether’s theorem.

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